The Brink: How Great Leadership Is Invented

This was an excellent summary of many of the lessons I learned from a year long executive coaching program called Accomplishment Coaching written by Mark Hunter, PCC.

This books means a lot to me as Mark led the program I completed who started me on the path of self development. He is now my Executive coach as well and is a brilliant coach and leader.

These were my favorite passages in his book called Brink: How Great Leadership is Invented.

“The two most important days in your life are the day you were born and the day you find out why.” —Mark Twain 

“Reasonable people adapt themselves to the world. Unreasonable people attempt to adapt the world to themselves. All progress, therefore, depends on unreasonable people.” —George Bernard Shaw 

“just for the obvious reason of your giving me life itself. You also gave birth to the insatiable desire in me to lead and make a difference in the world for those who cannot always see that others can make a difference for them. They and I owe you our eternal gratitude. I love you more than ever, and I honor you with this book. While it still hurts every single day not to be able to hold you and see your smile, you are always with me. Thank you, Dad, for everything—especially for your love and trust and friendship. You are still the man I aspire to be when I grow up. Who I am in the world is a direct reflection of you and all that you have taught me. You have been the foundation and the model for so much of what made this possible. Who you and Pat are in your own lives is both inspiring and heartwarming. Thank you for loving each other and for loving me so much through everything that we have gone through.” 

“Thank you to Accomplishment Coaching for giving me the platform to train other coaches and be trained in such a rigorous and compassionate environment. Specifically, thank you, Christopher McAuliffe, for your vision, commitment, and friendship.” 

“THE BRINK Leadership is not promised, born, or inherited. It is chosen, practiced, and created. This book is for those interested in taking on that choice, practice, and creation.” 

“There are people with the desire to see change occur, but most of them behave as if it’s someone else’s job … and he or she should be arriving at any moment to make things better.” 

“Well, here’s the wake-up call: That someone is you. The only effective way to respond to this global leadership gap is to step into it. The big question is … Will you?” 

“Unfortunately, many would-be leaders have become addicts of comfort, safety, and security instead of the challenges that would grow their leadership. Most have become slaves to the changing weather patterns of whether they “feel like it” or not in each moment—or whether goals seem “reasonable.” They have lost sight of the power that exists in facing challenges.” 

“The impulse to stick to a challenging commitment even when we don’t feel like it anymore has been lost to an entire market of exit strategies and avoidance techniques. Over time, our instinct to press on and remain committed to our goals, even when accomplishing them is hardest, have succumbed to the seduction of what’s easy. 

“The word “invented” appears in the title of this book on purpose. Its use asserts that leadership literally can be (and needs to be) created from scratch in each moment, by each of us, in order to meet the challenge that is currently at hand. Leadership is not a generic solution to anything or something that exists separate from the individual wielding it. Instead, it is a way of being and a practice that one chooses to take on and generate from within. I write this book because I have used the process I will describe in the pages that follow to develop leaders for well over a decade, and it works. It works if you are willing to step to the brink and start climbing.” 

“Either way, you discover something deeply intimate and primal in those moments; you learn that that experience has a unique value that can only be accessed through the immense challenge of it.” 

“The poet Kahlil Gibran wrote, “Out of suffering have emerged the strongest souls; the most massive characters are seared with scars.” What I discovered in the very dark places I visited on the side of that mountain were the depths of both my despair and joy, the breadth of my being, and the resolve within to do the impossible— discoveries far more important than any view.” 

“Both before and after Kilimanjaro, I have faced many mountains along my path. Some I intentionally created for myself, while others were thrust upon me. But all of them changed and shaped me into the leader I would eventually become.” 

“It is this act of facing internal challenges out in the external world that creates true leaders. This is what the brink is about.” 

“Ironically, this one was created in order to keep some people from taking on leadership, by preserving it for a few “chosen ones.” But take heart: leadership is for anyone who is committed to it, anyone willing to do what it takes to create and embody it.” 

“Even those you lead will not always love you—and that’s okay. The truth is that leaders don’t need to be loved by those they lead. Leaders are much better off seeking love from people other than those they lead. It’s important to note that the need to be loved by everyone will actually get in the way of leading, because it will ultimately become more important to the leader than the goal itself.” 

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Myth #4: Leaders are not afraid. On the contrary, leaders are smart enough to be very afraid. Leaders are often tasked with taking on challenges that are inherently scary. In fact, leaders are drawn to these types of challenges. They are also courageous enough that fear does not stop them from leading but actually causes them to step up their game. 

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There is nothing automatic about causing people to follow you. Finding followers might initially be easy, but leaders must do the work to entice others to follow their vision and then continue to keep them committed. This process is referred to as “enrollment.” Savvy leaders know how crucial it is to continually re-inspire those they lead with their vision and mission, in order to sustain momentum and maintain results. 

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Leadership requires the ability to recognize and adapt the method of delivery and context in which the message is delivered to the situation or character of the person to be influenced. Sometimes a swift kick in the pants is what’s needed, and while the outcome may be positive, the delivery isn’t always positive or “pleasant.” 

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1. Pick a mountain 2. Know the answer to “What for?” 3. Choose everything 4. Practice 5. Collaborate 6. Take ownership 7. Trust 8. Welcome fear and adversity 9. Create integrity 10. Be unstoppable 

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The new leadership paradigm—the brink—requires an inward focus rather than external management. 

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The brink is an invitation—you can choose to accept it or not. • The brink is a challenge—you can choose to take it on or not. • The brink requires willingness to bear or even intentionally pursue discomfort. 

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“The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort and convenience but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy.” —Martin Luther King, Jr. 

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The mountain you want to pick in the brink model is the unreasonable, uncomfortable one: Run a marathon over a 5K. Stay when it feels better to leave. Take the CrossFit class instead of the treadmill. Ask the hottest girl in the bar for her number rather than sitting with your friends for the rest of the night. Write the book rather than reading someone else’s. Choose the stairs each day rather than the escalator. Move through your despair rather than avoiding it. Own your illness instead of being victimized by it. Pick something bigger than you have before, and do it on purpose—with a purpose in mind. The brink rests firmly on the notion that 

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I’ve heard Warner speak about his experiences with life and death on the sides of the most dangerous mountains on earth, and I came away crystal clear about a few things: First, he sought the mountains he chose specifically for their degree of mystery and uncharted routes, because they were less known. 

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Bet you didn’t think we’d start off by challenging Einstein, did you? But that’s exactly what leadership takes. Nothing is sacred. To lead as you’ve only dreamed of leading, you must play bigger than you ever have before. 

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I was a 29-year-old wearing tech gear, climbing boots, and five layers of synthetic moisture-wicking clothes. He was a 19-year-old wearing a long-sleeved cotton shirt and a light jacket to go with his sneakers. As we climbed through my nausea, pain, exhaustion, and distraction, he stayed focused, coaching me along the way to take one step at a time and stop looking at the top. He always smiled (which was at times maddening and at other times the only thing keeping me upright) through all the challenges we faced along the way. He even helped carry some of my gear at some points. (I had chosen to skip hiring a porter as well, so I was carrying 50 pounds of my own gear.) Idrisa was poised and courageous in the face of the 

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Idrisa tackled countless other challenges on the side of that mountain with grace—including being responsible for both our survival and success. I asked him if he was afraid at one point, and he said to me, “Yes. It is not smart to be on this mountain and not be afraid. It deserves our fear. Fear is why we climb it. Fear is also what makes it possible to climb it and stay alive at the same time.” This contrasts 

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“The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” Fear is not something to be avoided; fear is a necessary ally if we let it inform us to take right action instead of letting it goad us into taking no action. 

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successfully completed the mission on July 20, 1969. The mission needs to be impactful and specific; it describes the endeavor that the team works toward. The mission is our proverbial mountain in the brink model and answers the question, “What are we doing in service of our vision?” It needs to be both reflective of the vision and inspiring to its participants. The mission must align with the principles and intentions of the team, and include everyone involved. 

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The other vital characteristic of a successful mission is that there must be full subscription across the board. Both the mission and the team can suffer dire consequences if the team lacks full commitment. In climbing real mountains, that consequence can be death. In business and other goals, lack of commitment can mean problems that put the team and future of the organization in jeopardy. 

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GAPS A gap is simply the space between where we are today and where we want to be. This is often the space that most people identify as their problem. As a coach, I regularly work with very successful people and teams who create powerful declarations and big goals, and then instantly begin to describe what a 

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Ironically, human beings naturally look for gaps to close, challenges to overcome, and problems to solve. We create gaps for many reasons; this is quite natural. The nature of the gap will depend on the individual. Leaders create gaps on purpose in order to move forward their intended results, vision, and mission by both clearly outlining its edges and distinguishing what’s in it for the team they are leading. Gaps are powerful tools in the hands of a leader. 

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A team that is not accustomed to climbing at steep gradients or against adversity will not likely be successful until the members are aware of what closing this particular gap means for them. This goes back to the importance of the vision to the mission. 

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A mission and vision are only as valuable as the degree to which they are cultivated and integrated into action. For a mission and vision to be effective, leaders and those they lead must connect to it intrinsically and embody it in how they interact daily with their tasks and the roles they play. 

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• Regularly enroll and re-enroll the team in the vision and mission. Enrollment in the vision and mission will not last untended. 

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However, I discovered quickly that I had the unfortunate combination of being good at reinsurance but very unhappy in that industry. Why? I had no “What for?” other than money. Once that came in, there wasn’t much else for me to get up for every day, so it became harder and harder to be good at what I did. I ended up hiring a coach as a direct result of the disconnect between what I was doing for a living and why I was doing it. Without any connection to what I was doing and no intention other than to earn good money, leadership had no place to grow within me. My commitment to nothing more than money was as shallow as it sounds. 

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PAYOFF Whenever my clients get stuck in a familiar pattern that is getting in their way, I ask them a question that tends to surprise them: “What’s the payoff you get from this pattern?” This question is often difficult for people to grasp, mostly because the pattern and results they are seeing are ones that they do not like or want. As a result, they cannot imagine that they are getting a payoff from the pattern. But the truth is they would not be creating this pattern if there were no payoff. Yes, even if they disagree or cannot see anything positive from it, they are getting something from its repetition, even if it hurts. They are most likely either doing it because it’s comfortable or familiar, they fear the consequences of not doing it, or they are so practiced at it that they are unaware of it. 

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2. Connection to the Team (Influence). The leader on the brink must be strongly connected to the team and invested in their success and the success of their individual members. This investment will create relationships that will weather all storms and empower parity. 

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CROSSROADS The brink is a crossroads. Choice is present with every step. In each moment, you have a choice between the old, familiar way and a new path. 

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Most people think about life as something that is happening to them, and many complain about how unfair it all is. 

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Many people make a point of fighting for the right to have and make choices but then fail to exercise this right fully once they have it. It’s easier to complain about not having choice than it is to own that everything is a choice and to choose responsibly. 

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On the brink, leaders get to choose and empower others’ choices as well. 

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Action—The final stage is action. Action is often taken too early (or even first), before a clear direction has been determined or powerful choices made. 

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them as examples of leadership. What made them leaders before they were told how? It’s simple: They chose leadership. Some had it thrust upon them, some sought it out, but either way, at some point they had a challenge and a choice, and they chose to own their leadership. Choice is the single most powerful aspect in developing one’s leadership. Once the choice is made, the path becomes illuminated, and new options arise that did not previously seem to exist. 

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• About 5% initiate the standing ovation because they are inspired/moved and willing to express it, calling forth their fellow crowd members. 

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Because you get to say which of these groups you will be in before you walk into another performance. You get to go do so in life, too—at work, on your team, in your office, in front of that room full of followers. 

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UNCONDITIONAL CURIOSITY Curiosity is one of the most important assets of leaders. Curiosity invites innovation, collaboration, investigation, and growth. On the brink, it is an absolute requirement for leadership. Unconditional curiosity separates great leaders from ineffective ones. For them, curiosity is authentic, not chosen for convenience. Unconditional curiosity is one of the most potent tools a leader can wield, and also, unfortunately, one of the most rare. It’s much easier to simply rely on a familiar pattern and evidence from the past than it is to get curious and innovate. The brink requires that leaders choose curiosity as the basis on which to move forward. Curiosity creates possibility by its very nature; curiosity has us see possibility that otherwise would not be considered at all. 

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No constancy exists for leaders except the constancy of change. “Job security” and “safety” are illusions; there are no guarantees. And pain and discomfort are inherently part of our lives. 

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You simply need to stop avoiding your pain and discomfort and relating to them as “enemies.” 

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CHAPTER SNAPSHOT • The brink is a continual crossroads. Leaders there need to constantly acknowledge that they have a choice, choose, and move forward. • Choices up the mountain are all part of the initial choice to climb the mountain in the first place. o Like parachuting out of an airplane, every foot you fall and the consequences of the fall are part of the choice to jump in the first place. o Challenge patterns are the unique patterns each leader follows when faced with a challenge, and include the following common stages: 1. Options 2. Consequences 3. Fear 4. Choice 5. Action 

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Make a list of the top 10 places you avoid pain in your goals/life. • Practice moving toward and allowing the pain in each area (where physically safe to do so). • What do you notice is the difference in the experience and the outcome of moving into that pain rather than away from it? 

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2. Intentionality—Practice must be taken on intentionally. It must be given the same reverence as the performance in which we are so often engaged and must be planned, scheduled, and executed for a specific purpose each time. This creates both focus and power in practice. 

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Urgency—Creating urgency in practice generates stretching of boundaries and limits. Urgency is not just about time but also about desire and the generation of energy. Establishing urgency as part of practice makes it a more effective tool for growth. 4. Curiosity—One of the keys to effective practice is curiosity. It forces us to step outside the familiar and innovate. Curiosity provides access to greater learning, growth, and creativity, all of which allow us to become more effective at what we are practicing and at our practice itself. 5. Commitment— Commitment is essential to practice. It keeps us on track, has us continue to practice even when we don’t “feel like it,” and generates enrollment, both in leaders and in those they lead. Commitment is effectively the backbone of practice in that the thing you are committed to is also the answer to the question “What for?”, and your practice of it is what causes your leadership to grow and the mountain to be climbed. 6. Play—This is perhaps the most important component of effective practice. Play allows us to be unattached, natural, and fully expressed as part of our leadership. It makes practice fun! Finding ways to incorporate play into practice will unlock other principles of practice and create energy, ease, and flow along the way. 

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An empowered relationship with practice and discomfort is a gift. You develop power in your relationship with discomfort by practicing it, and the best way to achieve that is to simply stop avoiding it. Instead, start seeking it out. Look for the places and challenges that scare you, that you avoid, and that you work so hard to mitigate. Start taking them on and stepping directly toward them. Make the discomfort familiar, and it quickly becomes a guide. 

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In a business, the bigger picture is typically the bottom line, and the “weather” we encounter along the way (the economy, interest rates, employee turnover, competitor underpricing, etc.) does not deter leaders from their focus on that bottom line. 

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These are all times when leaders are surprisingly focused the least on performing and the most on practicing, being creative, adapting, being flexible, and shifting as their path unfolds before them. Being clutch is simply a very high form of practice and being so comfortable with discomfort that one can play in its presence and ultimately produce the highest-level results. 

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leaders must disengage from the egocentric attachment to performance and instead focus on playing the game in the moment, and practicing their craft. And yes, you guessed it: This takes practice. 

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First responders are taught this through rigorous practice as part of their training. To become a Certified Wilderness First Responder, I was trained through simulations of situations in the most adverse of conditions: at 

night, alone, in the rain and cold, after being woken up from sleep, in several feet of snow, with few to no supplies available, and with people 

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You can imagine that, at first, such an experience is stressful, overwhelming, and completely panic-ridden, with disastrous results. What occurs over the surprisingly short time of the immersive course, however, is that the shock of all those experiences 

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very quickly diminishes and shifts toward normality. 

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He uses Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods, and Mozart as examples of those who created their own superhuman expertise simply by out-practicing their contemporaries. 

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Practice demands attention, energy, devotion, and nurturing. Leaders who forget this fact in service of getting “comfortable” are typically reminded rather unpleasantly about its necessity. 

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Practice is not optional. Leaders on the brink know this, and some have had to learn it the hard way for themselves. Practice is a daily necessity for leadership. 

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His commitment to open-hearted leadership in the face of such hateful behavior creates his following, even beyond his own countrymen. He is and has been a beloved leader around the globe for decades because of his leadership and teachings that come from such an uncommon place: his heart and his love for mankind, not just for his own people, and his struggle against their oppression. He inspires writers, political activists, spiritual people, and world leaders around the planet with how he chooses to lead from his heart consistently in the face of all the challenges he and his people face. Open-hearted leadership, like everything else on the brink, takes patience, trust, courage, and practice, all of which become most important when they are least convenient. 

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PRACTICE CHAPTER SNAPSHOT • Practice is distinct from performance. o In the highest levels of performance, practice is actually present and prominent. • The Six Principles of Practice 1. Persistence 2. Intentionality 3. Urgency 4. Curiosity 5. Commitment 6. Play • On the brink, comfort is a trap, and discomfort is a practice. o Here leaders look for places to practice being uncomfortable and normalize the presence of 

discomfort. o They create an empowered relationship to both practice and discomfort. • The disengagement principle states that leaders, when faced with adversity, are most effective when they disengage from focusing on the overall end result and instead focus on the next step toward that result. • Talent is simply a function of practice and can be developed simply by applying practice to a developing skill set. • Being an expert is a function of having practiced sufficiently to become adept at the level of expert. o Malcom Gladwell states that the level of expert is achieved only after 10,000 hours of practice. • Leaders on the brink are wary of complacency and adept at interrupting it before it slows progress. o They do this by creating a habit of practice that does not allow for activity to become rote. • Open-hearted leadership is a key to the brink in that it allows for intimate connection between the leader and the team. o It creates relationship and allows for humanity, forgiveness, and gratitude. EXERCISES/QUESTIONS 1. Make a list of the top three places you expect performance without practice. • Schedule regular (at least weekly) practice in each of those areas. • Make sure this practice is not judged or made wrong in any way. The only intention is to practice without the expectation of performing. 2. Make a list of the five areas of life in which you have become comfortable. • For each, identify three ways to make that area uncomfortable in a manner that specifically serves the result you are after. • Take on adding one of those ways to each area of life this week. o Pick another for each of the five areas of life next week and add it. o Do the same for the next three weeks. 3. Make a list of the three places in your life that you want to develop talent. • Choose how much time you are willing to devote to each area. o Schedule that time in each area daily. 

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For the next 24 hours, practice opening your heart as a leader in the times when you most want to close it and exert force or control. • See what difference it makes for you and for those you lead and lead with. o Extend this time to the next 48 hours and then the next 72 hours. ◊ Notice the experience of vulnerability this requires. ◊ Practice being with that discomfort and moving into it rather than away from it. 

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“It’s never crowded along the extra mile.” —Wayne Dyer CHAPTER 5 COLLABORATE THE POWER OF MORE THAN ONE Collaboration is a partnership among group members that is specifically focused on a common intention or goal. The biggest, most challenging mountains are climbed by teams, not individuals. The bigger the mountain, the bigger the challenge and the more necessary the collaboration. Leaders on the brink know this and build teams commensurate with the size of the mountain they have chosen to climb. In fact, they use the power of collaboration to enroll the team itself. Collaboration is attractive; people naturally want to be part of something greater than themselves, something in which their presence matters. 

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The brink is attractive. Followers will first follow a leader and then agree to become enrolled in the vision that the leader embodies. This happens because leaders on the brink are intrinsically enrollment worthy by virtue of who they are. Think of the adventurers, visionaries, and pioneers of various fields. They create a following simply as a result of the leadership they embody by being willing to put everything at stake and operate boldly on the brink. 

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FIVE LAWS OF POWER ON THE BRINK There are five distinct laws of generating power as a leader on the brink: 1. Authenticity Is King—Stop being careful, and say what you mean. Team members will respect this and expect it not only from their leader but also from one another and themselves. Power will come from that expectation and the trust that is generated. 

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The question I am asked most often about this is, “But how can both love and power coexist?” The funny answer is that true power only exists in the presence of love and open-heartedness. Any other form of power is inherently flawed and ultimately leaves suffering and limited results in its wake. 

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Attachment to Outcome/Results. Getting attached to the idea of winning can create the kind of problematic relationship with failure discussed above. What’s even more complicated is that oftentimes, this kind of mindset also implies that our own value is attached to winning and/ or getting results. 

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Accountability in Multiple Directions—This is absolutely key. Team members must remain open and expectant of feedback from all directions. They must also be willing to give feedback to everyone else, including the leader. The most effective collaboration requires transparency and a willingness to speak and listen, regardless of who is listening or talking. 

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“The irony of commitment is that it’s deeply liberating—in work, in play, in love. The act frees you from the tyranny of your internal critic, from the fear that likes to dress itself up and parade around like rational hesitation. To commit is to remove your head as the barrier to your life.” —Anne Morris 

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Emergency—This is where things get interesting. This is where we typically start to see some movement, because we’re getting close to having no choice in the matter any longer, and fear of consequences starts to build. Here there is a real sense of power loss. The circumstances now own us rather than the other way around. In this stage we go into reaction mode, feeling the impact of having waited. Taking care of this problem now interrupts the Space stage of our other commitments and lasts until we start to feel that without action, we may not survive. 

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Have To—This is typically where we take the most action, when the choice or option of doing anything else has been fully removed. In this stage we see a triad of unnecessary activity, tunnel vision, and frenetic action. This is 

the stage that many people require in order to take action, simply because the choice has been removed for them. Unfortunately, the conditions of this stage are not powerful or intentional. This is the 

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army went on to win a battle in which it was largely outnumbered, its victory the result of the members’ having no “alternative escape” during the fight. They literally had to win or die. 

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Commitment means leaving no back doors, excuses, or escape routes on the path toward your goal. It requires clarity of purpose, courage, urgency, and a willingness to trust in one’s capability. That trust is solidified by figuratively burning your boats before climbing your mountain. 

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the way in which you relate to those dollars. There are wealthy people who relate to themselves as poor, never having “enough,” and poor people who are wealthy in ways that are not measureable. 

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Similarly, if you want to find more time, put more appointments on your calendar and gain the experience of conquering that challenge. Only in that way will the context of scarcity be shifted. 

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The collective effectiveness of a team is greater than the sum of its parts. The trust members give and receive every step of the way plays an important role in the team’s success. 

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Failure creates an opportunity for true learning and ownership, plus the experience of the consequences of wielding responsibility. 

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Practice sharing the intention with your team or partner and enrolling them in holding you accountable to implementing your intention. 

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Practice responsibly saying “Yes” to things without having to know “how.” 

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If leaders are not challenged by their fears regularly, they are likely playing too small a game. Fear is simply an indication that we are in the presence of or about to enter unfamiliar territory with uncertain outcomes. Many things we fear, such as death, losing all our investment, injury, etc., are realistic. Other fears, such as others’ disapproval, looking silly in front of others, public disgrace, etc., are self-generated and made up, and these are the ones that stop leaders most often. 

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This is because one of the fears we are most affected by is being “seen” by others and thereby judged and assessed. 

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True leadership does not deny its humanity, fallibility, or need for collaboration and support; it operates in the face of all of that. 

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In this model, everyone is given permission to be transparent about his or her own process, as well as give feedback to others about their processes, even those ranking “above” in the organization. Transparency creates collaboration, interconnectedness, mutual trust, and an even playing field. The savviest leaders want to hear others’ feedback and are fueled by the open level of communication that this type of transparency creates. They also are clear about the value of transparency by giving feedback and sharing information with their team. They know that it is in service of their mission and vision to do so. 

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Consider that the brink is even more powerful when this frame of mind becomes habit. Walking tiger safaris aren’t necessary, but choosing to move toward the fears that typically stop you as a leader is. 

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Even consequences we don’t like are still ones we fundamentally chose for ourselves, and failing to understand this is what stops many of us when things don’t go our way. But the truth is that suffering is always optional. It’s especially obvious that it’s optional when what we are suffering from is the direct consequence of our own choice. 

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Employees are compensated based on how effectively they produce for the team and the company. Their investment in growing their own compensation thereby serves the team and company. By also serving the longevity of the organization, this in turn serves the employee as well. Company meetings, business trips, sales 

trainings, and client sales calls all serve the interests of each party involved, even though at times those different components may occur in opposition on a calendar and vie for the employee’s time. This is not a “problem” to fix, but rather a symbiotic relationship to recognize and respect. 

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JFK made this declaration knowing that he did not have all the answers himself and that he could not do it alone, but that it absolutely would be done. He had no evidence, research, or scientific proof of its even being possible at that point, so it was a completely unreasonable mission. 

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Either way, evidence supports the excuses on which our fear relies. 

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Persistent focus on taking the next step, and the next step, over and over again, relentlessly brings runners back into focus on the race they have ahead of them. 

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On the other hand, taking on challenges rather than problems is empowering and builds others’ confidence in you. A challenge is an opportunity and is expected. Facing a challenge calls on your and others’ greatness, while problems tend to diminish resolve and momentum. 

 

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